MADAGASCAR CONCLUSION

     Madagascar is the fourth largest island in the world.  It is located off the southeast coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean.  Madagascar is a very unique and special place.  About 88 million years ago Madagascar separated from India which allowed the animals and plants to evolve in isolation.  Over 90% of the animals and plants are found nowhere else in the world.  Unfortunately, the animals and plants are threatened because of the increase in human population and destruction of habitat.  Even by third world standards, Madagascar is a very poor country.  Over 93% of the 22 million people in Madagascar live on less than two dollars a day and up to 11 million don’t have access to clean water.   Most are not able to afford health care and the few medical professionals and hospitals are located in cities.  The majority of the population, 70%, lives in rural areas. The infrastructure is also lacking in most areas.  Only 15% of the population has access to electricity and only 17% of the roads are paved.   With the problems that Madagascar is currently facing, the poverty and lack of infrastructure is only exacerbating them.

     The two main problems that Madagascar is facing are the weather, which is increasing in severity most likely due to global warming, and deforestation.  Between the rainy periods of November thru May, Madagascar experiences about three to four cyclones a year.  These cyclones usually hit the east coast, especially in the central and northern regions, resulting in torrential rain, high winds and coastal flooding.  Although cyclones have always been a problem, the storms have become more severe causing damage and destruction of buildings, crops and roads along with a number of deaths.  On January 14^th, 2015, Cyclone Giovanna hit Madagascar killing 68 and leaving 20,000 living in temporary shelters.  On February 14^th, 2015, Cyclone Giovanna killed 23 people and damaged over 1000 homes.  In the cities the drainage systems like dykes, pumping stations and levees are poorly built and not that well maintained making the population more vulnerable to mudslides and flooding.  In rural areas, there are very few if any types of drainage systems present.  Since the population is so poor, many are forced to live in flood zones or areas which are subject to mudslides.  Many of the homes are poorly constructed with some only made of cardboard and plastic.  One solution is to improve the drainage systems in the cities and make sure that they are better maintained to decrease the chances of flooding and mudslides.  In rural areas that are vulnerable to flooding and mudslides, drainage systems should be put in place.  The laws and regulations that prohibit building in flood zones should be reinforced which unfortunately many are not.  Retaining walls should be utilized to support slopes and grading, removing material from the upper slope and placing it at the bottom, should also be an option.Slope stability should also be thoroughly accessed before any home is built on a hill or next to a hill.  Better building materials should also be provided to the poor so their homes would better be able to withstand storms.

     In contrast, Madagascar suffers from periodic droughts in the south.  In the past Madagascar would experience a drought about every ten years but now droughts are occurring every three to five years.   Agriculture is the foundation of Madagascar’s economy.  Not only are the cyclones damaging and destroying crops in the north but the droughts are also damaging and destroying crops in the south. The drought this past year has been so severe that 100 people have died of starvation and left over 200,000 on the brink of starvation because of crop failure.  Some have resorted to eating lemurs, a cultural taboo, and cattle feed. The UN food assistance has been providing food for the population along with other charitable organizations like UNICEF.  Organizations like The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) and Knowledge Management Platform (KMP) have provided videos for farmers to teach them how to make  quick compost,  how to use mulch to conserve moisture and growing alternative crops like sorghum and millet that are drought resistant.  These are good solutions on a temporary basis but if these droughts persist the government may have to resort to relocating the population into areas that have access to water. Another solution may be building a seawater desalination plant to convert seawater into drinkable water.  This would provide clean water not only to the population but also crops.

     Deforestation is another problem that Madagascar is facing.  It is estimated that Madagascar has loss 80% of its forest due to slash and burn agriculture, illegal logging, wood for fuel and clearing the forest for mines.  This is not only threatening the animals and the habitat they live in but it is also making the land more vulnerable to landslides and causing soil erosion.  Mangroves along the west coast are also being cut increasing beach erosion.  When forests are cut and trees are not replanted, scrubs and grass grow which are not always able to anchor the soil.  This makes certain areas more vulnerable to landslides or mudslides during the rainy season.  Madagascar loses about 200-400 tons of soil per hectare each year due to soil runoff.  The average worldwide is around 11 tons.  Since agriculture is so important to the economy, Madagascar cannot afford to lose this valuable rich soil.  One solution is to provide electricity to the population.  Only 15% of the population has access to electricity so trees are cut to use for cooking, heat and light.  There should be severe fines put in place if anyone is illegally logging and environmental regulations for mines.  Unfortunately, mines are lucrative for the government and also provide much needed jobs to the population so environmental concerns are not usually considered.  Hopefully some middle ground can be found so that if these mines operate, they do so with the least amount of environmental impact.   The population also needs to be educated about not only how special and unique the animals and the habitat of Madagascar are but how important keeping it safe will be for future generations.  There also needs to be a massive tree planning campaign that should start at the local level.   An alternative to slash and burn agriculture needs to be put in place.  Slash and burn agriculture involves cutting or burning the forest and planting crops for a couple of seasons and then abandoning the land and repeating the process.  Inga ally cropping has been used as an alternative to slash and burn agriculture in Costa Rica and Honduras.  Crops are planted between rows of Inga trees that grow very fast.  The trees not only provide a canopy to protect the crops but the branches and leaves can be used for mulch.  The bigger limbs can be pruned and used as fuel and the roots of the trees produce a fungus that recycles phosphorus so the soil will retain its fertility and the land can be used continually.     

     The severe weather that Madagascar is experiencing appears to have a direct link to global warming.  Global warming needs to be addressed globally with the wealthier countries not only taking the lead to decrease greenhouse gases but also help poorer countries deal with the affects of global warmer. There also needs to be more of a global effort to decrease the population.  With 7 billion plus people, the planet cannot sustain this population without continued environmental degradation which is taking place in many parts of the world.  Some of the damage and destruction of the environment may not be reversible and when an animal or plant becomes extinct, that is it.  It is loss to the world forever.  As far as where I would live in Madagascar, my first response is that I would not want to live in Madagascar.  I would love to visit the island and see the lemurs and the Tsingy rock formations along with many other sites, but I would never want to live there. Madagascar is a very impoverished country and the government has been trying to recover from a coop that took place in 2009.  If I was going to try to find a place to live in Madagascar, I would choose to live near a major town or city.  The only way I would have access to clean water, electricity, paved roads, medical facilities, internet, cell towers, airports and decent sanitary conditions would be if I lived close to a major populated area.  In most rural areas, very few if any of these amenities are present.  Even in major towns or cities, the electricity goes out periodically and the sanitary conditions and quality of medical care can still be lacking.  The place I would choose to live is Nosy Be which is an island off the north-west coast of Madagascar and it is a part of Madagascar.  The island is a huge tourist destination but since it does cater to tourists, all the amenities are present and there are good sanitary conditions.  It is also a beautiful tropical island with beautiful beaches, coral reefs to explore, lemurs, and an abundant amount of forests that have not been cut down due to deforestation.  Around Nosy Be there are several smaller islands that also have beautiful beaches, forests and lemurs that can be visited.  When it comes to hazards, Madagascar does have cyclones that hit the northern part of the island and do pass over Nosy Be.  The eastern side of Madagascar usually gets the biggest impact of the cyclones.  It may not be the safest place to build a house when it comes to hazards but it would be where I would choose to live in Madagascar. I would make sure that my house was reinforced to withstand cyclones and not built too close to the ocean.

 

REFERENCES

Kellor, Edward A., Devecchio, Duane E., (2015) Natural Hazards, Earth's processes as Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes (4TH ED).

Madagascar - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org

Water Aid Madagascar, www.wateraid.org

Poverty in Madagascar - the Borgen Project, www.borgenproject.org

Deforestation in Madagascar – NC State University. www4.ncsu.edu.edu/-tlbolton/world_forestry.

 Heavy rains turn Antananarivo into a city of landslides.  floodlist.com/africa/heavy-rain-antananarivo-landslides.

Inga ally cropping. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inga_Alley_Cropping

Devastating Drought has 200,000 People in Madagascar on…https://news.vice.com/article/devastation=drought

Tens of thousands going hungry in drought-hit Madagascar.news-yahoo.com/ten=thousands-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosy_Be

 

 

 

 

Madagascar Beach Erosion

     The east coast of Madagascar consists largely of steeply shelving beaches and rocky shores.  The shoreline is straight with the exception of one bay.  A narrow band of lowlands is used for agriculture due to the very abundant rich soil.  Although there are some beautiful beaches on the east coast, sharks frequent the shoreline and the sharp drop off at most beaches make it dangerous for swimmers.  Madagascar east coast, especially in the north, usually gets three to four major cyclones each year.  The storms in the last several years have been very intense resulting in beach erosion and forcing several communities to leave the areas they have been living in.  The west coast of Madagascar also has beautiful beaches, coral reefs and Mangroves.  Over 90% of the coral reefs around the island are located on the west coast.  The third largest coral reef in the world, Toliara, is located in the southwest coast of Madagascar.   Mangroves, shrubs and trees that are saline tolerant that grow along the coastline and estuaries, largely grow on the west coast.  Both the reefs and mangroves work in concert to protect each other.  The reefs buffer the mangroves from the pounding surf and storm surges and the mangroves protect the reefs and sea grass beds by capturing river-borne sediment and sediment from the inland.   Mangroves provide shelter for mollusk, crustacean communities and it is also a habitat for turtles, birds and dugongs.  Many fish and shellfish species that live in the estuaries need fresh water for at least part of their life cycle and certain migratory birds prey on these for food.  The mangroves are also critical for coastal communities that use the mangroves for cooking fuel, medicine, construction material and food.

     Mangroves have been threatened recently because of urban development, overpopulation, overfishing, deforestation inland and overharvesting of mangroves.  Some areas of mangroves have been completely removed to provide room for rice farmers, shrimp farmers and salt production which has resulted in high rates of erosion.  One of the fastest changing coastlines in the world is located in northern Madagascar in the Betsiboka estuary, the mouth of Madagascar’s largest river.  Erosion from the loss of mangroves and deforestation inland has produced so much sediment that ships that were once able to travel up the estuary cannot anymore.  Without the mangroves, communities along the coast will not be able to harvest the mangroves for wood and construction and the various sea creatures like mollusk, crustacean and fish will die off.  One of the main food sources for these communities will no longer be available.  The migratory birds will also no longer have a food source.  It has been estimated that 30 to 50% of mangroves worldwide have been destroyed.  The mangroves that also protect the reefs and grass beds from sediment are also compromised.  Toliara Reef has experienced an increase in sediment recently although fortunately it has not reached a scale where the effects are not reversible.  The reefs also buffer the shoreline from the pounding surf and storm surges which helps to prevent shore erosion.  Along with the sediment, rising temperatures in the ocean is also expelling colorful algae in the reefs that when not present results in the reefs turning white.  This process is known as bleaching and if it is intense, sustained or happens frequently; it can result in the reef dying and the death of the creatures living in the reef.  Because of warm ocean temperatures in 1998 and 2000, reefs in the southwest were dying and some reefs lost 99% of their coral cover.  Because of climate change and ocean temperatures rising, this is an ongoing concern.

     Many organizations like WWF (World Wildlife fund), Honko Mangrove Conservation and Education and The World Conservation Union have tried to help Madagascar restore their mangroves.  These organizations educate the local communities about the importance of mangroves and in many places have started replanting projects.  Mangroves grow fast and within the first year can grow to over three feet.  Emphasis is also placed on how important mangroves are to other creatures that need the mangroves to survive.  A sustainable population of shrimp, crab and fish will not only feed their families but can also be a source of profit by selling them at the market.  There are also areas like the Mosoala National Park which is protected and has nine species of mangroves.   On a larger scale it is harder to stop the growth of large shrimp and rice farms because they are very lucrative and provides income not only to a much improvised country but also jobs for the local populations.  Although regulations have been put in place to prevent degradation of the environment, many are not always reinforced.  When it comes to climate change and rising ocean temperature, this needs to be addressed on a global scale.  One problem that always seems to be cited when it comes to many of these environmental problems, not only in Madagascar but also other countries, is over population.  Since 1980, the population of Madagascar has doubled.  About half of the population is under 15 and will soon be of reproductive age.  One positive note is that family planning methods have increased from 5% to 18% in recent years.  Hopefully this number will continue to increase so the impact on the environment will lessen.

 

REFERENCES

Northwest Coast of Madagascar | Coastal Care. coastalcare.org/2011/06/northwest-coast-of-madagascar-erosions-impact.

Mangrove deforestation in Madagascar: What are the options www.illegal-logging.info/content/mangrove-deforestation-madagascar.

Madagascar -- A World Apart: Paradise in Peril.  www.pbs.org/edens/madagascar/paradise.htm.

Deforestation is killing Madagascar's coral reefs.  news.mongabay.com/2012/0905-deforestation-coral-reefs.html.

WWF - Coral reef protection in Madagascar. wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/madagascar/index.cfm?uProject.

Madagascar Naturellement: Birth Control is My.  https://www.k4health.org/toolkits/phe/madagascar-naturellement.                                                                                                         

Honko Mangrove Conservation & Education. honko.org

 

Madagascar and Severe Weather

     Madagascar does not have a spring, summer, fall or winter. There is a rainy period between November and May and a dry period the rest of the time.  During the rainy period, Madagascar can experience torrential rains due to tropical storms and cyclones.  Madagascar experiences at least three to four major cyclones a year during this period.  The storms usually form in the east in the Indian Ocean.  The hardest hit areas tend to be on the eastern side of the island, especially the northeast or central areas of the island. The heavy rains can lead to flooding and mudslides causing death and destruction of structures, crops and roads.  Since Madagascar is a very poor country, many homes are not well constructed and many people have no other choice but to live in flood zones.   In cities, the infrastructure like drainage systems and dykes are not always well constructed and maintained to prevent flooding.  In rural areas, the infrastructure is usually not even present.  Deforestation is also a problem making landslides more likely during periods of heavy rains because trees canopies serve as a barrier to the wind and rain and the deep roots of the trees help keep the soil in place. Without the forests, there is nothing to keep the soil and other materials in place on hillsides.  I know that cyclones are going to be the topic for next week but this is the major type of severe weather that Madagascar experiences.

    In contrast, the southern part of the island is subjected to periodic droughts.  Droughts are defined as periods of unusually low precipitation leaving people, plants and animals temporary with very little water.  Over one billion people live in dry areas where droughts are common and over a100 million are at risk for starvation if their crops fail due to drought.  Not only has Madagascar experienced some rather severe cyclones this past year in the north resulting in deaths and destruction of property but has also experienced a very severe year long drought in the south. Over 100 people have reportedly died of starvation due to the drought and has left as many as 200,000 at the brink of starvation due to crop failure.  Food prices have also gone up 100% and the price of 25 liter water containers have rose 25 times.  According to the general director of meteorology in Madagascar, the El Nino will be severe through October of this year through April of next year.  This will result in less rain then average in the south and the north will have more precipitation than usual. The El Nino is a climate pattern where the water in the Pacific Ocean is warmer then usual around the equator which affects the atmosphere and weather around the world.  The trade winds can also weaken or reverse. The UN food assistance branch and other charity organizations have been helping Madagascar to prevent more starvation.

 

REFERENCES

Kellor, Edward A., Devecchio, Duane E., (2015) Natural Hazards, Earth's processes as Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes (4TH ED).

Heavy rains turn Antananarivo into a city of landslides.  floodlist.com/africa/heavy-rain-antananarivo-landslides.

Madagascar: Drought Wreaking Havoc but the Worst is coming. News.islandcrisis.net/2015/02/madagascar-drought-wrecking-havoc

Devastating Drought has 200,000 People in Madagascar on…https://news.vice.com/article/devastation=drought

Tens of thousands going hungry in drought-hit Madagascar.news-yahoo.com/ten=thousands-

MADAGASCAR AND LANDSLIDES

     Madagascar has a problem with landslides, especially in the central and eastern regions.  During the months of November thru May, torrential rains from various tropical storms and cyclones saturate the ground making mountains and hillsides more susceptible to landslides. This can result in damage and destruction of structures, roads, pipelines and agriculture land.  In the capital city of Antananarivo, people lost their homes and some their lives because of landslides the first several months of this year.  Although Madagascar was experiencing a much more powerful cyclone season this year, landslides are disasters that Madagascar has to contend with every year.  Madagascar is a poor country even by third world standards.  The infrastructure that is used to decrease the chance of landslides in a wealthy country may not always be present in Madagascar.  The infrastructure in areas that do have dykes, levees and drainage systems are not always well constructed and poorly maintained.  I am also assuming that Madagascar may not have enough qualified people to assess the risks for landslides in various areas and there may be no enforcement to prevent people from building homes where there may be a risk of landslides.

     Deforestation is also resulting in more landslides in Madagascar.  Deforestation is the result of slash and burn agriculture, illegal logging, fuel wood and forest cleared because of mining.  Slash and burn agriculture results in areas of the rainforest cut down and in its place rice and other crops are planted or the land is used for grazing animals.  After a couple years of production the land is left fallow for 4 to 6 years and then planting resumes for a couple of years.  This process occurs 2 to 3 times until the soil is exhausted of nutrients and abandoned.  The vegetation that ends up growing in these abandoned areas like scrubs or alien grasses may not be sufficient to anchor the soil on slopes which may result in a landslide.  Illegal logging is the result of extreme poverty and government corruption.  Only 15% of the population in Madagascar has access to electricity and in rural areas it is less than 4%.  Wood is used for cooking, heat and light during the night.  Soil erosion is another result of deforestation with some areas losing as much as 400 tons/ha per year.  Agriculture is the foundation of Madagascar’s economy and may be put at risk due to soil erosion.       

     The weather in Madagascar, which can result in torrential rains during the rainy season, cannot be prevented.  The infrastructure though can be improved to decrease the chances of landslides.  Drainage systems, levees and dykes that are structurally sound and maintained properly can help.  More needs to be done in assessing landslide risks and increasing slope stability.  Retaining walls to help support slopes and grading, removing material from the upper slope and placing it at the bottom, should also be used.  In some areas that are too dangerous, people may need to be moved or prevented from building in certain areas. People, especially in the rural areas, need to have access to electricity instead of cutting down trees for fuel which contributes to deforestation. In the short term this may not be realistic but hopefully help from other countries can enable more Madagascans in the future access to electricity.  Farmers and foresters have also planted Eucalyptus, pine and silky oak in deforested areas.  Reforestation of native plants in rainforest corridors have resulted in mixed results.  An alternative to slash and burn agriculture is inga ally cropping.  This involves planting Inga tree in a row and in between the trees planting crops.  Inga trees grow fast which produces a canopy that cuts off light so weeds won’t grow.  The trees also converts nitrogen into a form that can be used by plants and a fungus that grows on its roots recycles phosphorus. Research has found that soil loses its fertility when phosphorus is washed out by the rain.  This allows farmers to use the land over and over again.  Larger branches from the trees can be pruned and used as firewood while smaller branches and leaves are left on the ground to decompose, releasing phosphorus and used as mulch.  The famers punch holes in the mulch to plant crops that are in turn fed by the mulch as they grow. The mulch also helps shield the soil from the hot sun and rain.  This method has been used in Costa Rica, Honduras and Peru.  Discussions have been underway to start this is Madagascar. If inga ally cropping is implemented in Madagascar, deforestation can be decreased which would prevent landslides. 

 

REFERENCES

Kellor, Edward A., Devecchio, Duane E., (2015) Natural Hazards, Earth's processes as Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes (4TH ED).

Deforestation in Madagascar – NC State University. www4.ncsu.edu.edu/-tlbolton/world_forestry.

Heavy rains turn Antananarivo into a city of landslides.  floodlist.com/africa/heavy-rain-antananarivo-landslides.

Inga ally cropping. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inga_Alley_Cropping

 

 

 

 

 

     A volcano is a rupture or opening on the surface of the earth where magma breaks through releasing gas, ash, lava and molten rock.  Magma mostly comes from the asthenosphere below the lithosphere.  The asthenosphere is weaker than the lithosphere and close to its melting point. The depth and pressure from above keeps the rocks in the asthenosphere from melting.  When two plates spread, the lithosphere becomes weaker and does not exert as much pressure on the asthenosphere below, resulting in decompression melting and the forming of magma which rises to the surface.  Most volcanoes are located in divergent or convergent plate boundaries.  In subduction zones, volatiles are released as one plate moves under the other.  Volatiles are chemical compounds like water, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide that when released can lower the melting temperature of rocks in the asthenosphere causing the magma to rise.

     Madagascar has five volcanoes.  They are Ambre-Bobaomby, Ankaizina, Ankaratra Field, Itasy Volcanic field and Nosy-Be.  All of these volcanoes are dormant.  The last eruption occurred in 6050 BC in the Itasy Volcanic Field.  Since there is no active volcanic activity now or in the recent pass, Madagascar does not have any real preparedness plans in case of an erupting volcano.  Madagascar does have two active volcanoes off its coast.  Both of them are shield volcanoes.  Shield volcanoes are wider than they are taller and produce the most lava flow due to low viscosity. The eruptions are usually not that explosive and are most common in hot spots. The Volcano Piton De La Fournaise on Reunion Island is 300 miles east of Madagascar and is one of the most active volcanoes in the world.  There have been more than 150 recorded eruptions since the 17th century with the most recent eruption on August 1^st of this year. The volcano Karthala on The Comoros islands is around 200 miles northwest of Madagascar and has erupted more than 20 times since the 19^th century with the last eruption on May 29, 2006. Most of the eruptions have been mild but phreatic explosions have occurred in 1918, 1948, 1991 and 2005.  Phreatic explosions occur when magma heats surface water so quickly that it turns to steam causing an explosion of steam, rock, water and Ash.  In 2005, 30,000 residents were evacuated after an eruption because there was a risk of lava flow and deadly volcanic gas.  They returned to their homes and found ash tainted water.  These volcanoes don’t appear to pose much of a threat to Madagascar.  If one of them had a huge eruption causing part of it to fall into the ocean, it could potentially cause a tsunami.  If Karthala had a huge phreatic explosion, ash could potentially reach Madagascar which might pollute the water, damage crops, and cause respiratory problems for animals and humans. 

 REFERENCES

 

Kellor, Edward A., Devecchio, Duane E., (2015) Natural Hazards, Earth's processes as Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes (4TH ED).

 

Piton De La Fournaise, www.Wikipedia.org

Mount Karthala, www.Wikpedia.org

Karthola Volcano, Comoros – John Seach, www.volcanolive.com/Karthola.html

Phreatic eruption, www.Wikpedia .org 

 

MADAGASCAR AND TSUNAMIS

     Tsunamis are ocean waves caused by a displacement of ocean water which can be caused by an earthquake on the ocean floor, an underwater land slide that may be triggered by an earthquake, the collapse of part of a volcano that falls into the ocean or a comet or asteroid striking the ocean.  In 2004, an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1 occurred off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.  It was one of the worst natural disasters in recorded history with a death toll of over 230,000. Most of the deaths were caused by the tsunami which followed after the earthquake.  The tsunami affected many countries around the Indian Ocean causing death and damage as far away as Africa.  In Madagascar, waves of up to 33 feet were seen in the southeastern side of the island.  This resulted in one death and left over 1000 homeless.  Most victims around the Indian Ocean were not aware of the tsunami even though it took hours before the waves to arrive because there was no warning systems.  Because of this, The Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System was constructed and became operational in 2006.

     Sumatra is 5581 miles away from Madagascar.  The Arabian, Indian, Antarctic and Indo- Australian Plate boundaries which surround Madagascar are much closer.  If  an earthquake occurred on one of these plate boundaries close or of a similar magnitude that hit off the northern coast of Sumatra in 2014, the death and destruction in Madagascar would be much greater then what was experienced in 2004.  Madagascar has two active volcanoes off its coast on each side of the island. The volcano Piton De La Fournaise on Reunion Island just erupted on august 1^st of this year and is around 300 miles east of Madagascar.  On the northwest side of Madagascar are the Comoros Islands where the volcano Karthola is located.  About 200 miles distance from Madagascar, it erupted on May 29, 2006.  A volcano that erupts can produce a tsunami if enough of it falls into the ocean and produces substantial waves.  The Davie ridge is an underwater ridge located between southeast Africa and Madagascar.  In May and June of 1985, a sequence of earthquakes occurred with up to a magnitude of 6.4 in the northern part of the ridge.  This did not produce a tsunami but could have if the magnitude was bigger. I could not find any information about a tsunami, other than the one in 2004, striking Madagascar in recent history. The risk of a tsunami may be slight but it could potentially happen if one of the scenarios above took place.   

     Even with The Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System in place, I don’t know how well the government of Madagascar would be able to disperse this information to a large portion of its population quick enough to save lives.  Madagascar has a poor telecommunication system.  In cities some people own phones and have internet access but not in many rural areas. Only 15% of the population have access to electricity. Most people don’t own phones, televisions or radios because of this and because of extreme poverty could not afford these devices anyway.  In cities there at least would be some people who have access to television and radio but 70% of the population live in rural areas.  By the time many people would get this information, it would be too late.  Also, since most people don’t own a car, most would have to walk inland or go to higher ground so being able to get this information in a timely manner would also be important.    

 REFERENCES

Kellor, Edward A., Devecchio, Duane E., (2015) Natural Hazards, Earth's processes as Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes (4TH ED).

Piton De La Fournaise, www.Wikipedia.org

Mount Karthala, www.Wikpedia.org

Madagascar - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, www.wikipedia.org

Earthquakes in the Davie Ridge-Madagascar region and the…adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988jgr…9310439g

Access to electricity (% of population) /data/table. data.worldbank.org

Impact of 2004 in the island of the Indian Oceans...www.hindawi.com/journals/emi/2011/920813

MADAGASCAR - EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS

     Madagascar does experience earthquakes occasionally but none have resulted in the loss of life or much property damage.  The Ankaratra Plateau in the center of the island is the most seismically active area.  In 1985 the area experienced a 5.2 magnitude earthquakes and in 1991 a 5.5 magnitude earthquake. More recently on July 11, 2015, a 5.6 earthquake occurred near Vakinankaratra, which is in central Madagascar. To the north of Ankaratra Plateau is the Aloatra-Ankay rift which is also seismically active.  On Jan. 26, 2013, the town of Tulear in the southwest of Madagascar experienced a 5.3 magnitude earthquake which broke some windows but no loss of life or other property damage was reported.
     I could not find any information in regards to Madagascar making any efforts to prepare for an earthquake catastrophe.  Through my research I have drawn my own conclusions about how prepared Madagascar would be if a major earthquake occurs and the scenario is grim.  Madagascar, even by third world standards, is a very poor country.  Around  90% of the population lives on less than $2 a day.  The vast majority of the population does not have extra food or water stored up or even a handy first aid kit to rely on if a major earthquake hits.  These people are barely surviving daily and would be at the mercy of their government or foreign aid for help.  The government of Madagascar has experienced political problems in the last several years.  An illegal coup in 2009 resulted in a suspension of all foreign aid.  Since foreign aid makes up 70% of the national budget, this was devastating to an already struggling government.  In 2014, elections were held and a new leader was elected which resulted in foreign aid being restored.  Still, the GDP (growth domestic product), had a negative growth last year and Madagascar is in debt 3 billion dollars to the United States.  Madagascar does have a government agency to deal with disasters , The National Bureau of Risk and Disaster Management (BNGRC), which by all accounts is very poorly funded and ill-equipped.  The major disasters in Madagascar that result in loss of life and property damage are caused by typhoons and flooding.  Since earthquakes have not been a problem in the past or currently, the focus of the BNGRC I assume would be directed largely at typhoons and flooding preparation and the aftermath.


     The infrastructure of Madagascar is very poor and in many places not even present.  The population is approximately 22 million with 70% living in rural areas.  Only 17% of roads are paved.  The major cities have paved roads and there are some paved roads between major cities but the vast majority of roads are dirt or gravel.  If a major earthquake occurred, it would take much longer to get help to many areas because of the conditions of these roads.  During the rainy season that occurs between November and April, many of these roads cannot even be used because of muddy conditions and flooding.  Although there are medical centers and hospitals around the island, the majority are concentrated in urban areas.  Madagascar has an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and an extremely low percentage of trained medical professionals.  In 2010 the healthcare budget was cut by 30%.  If a major earthquake occurred, Madagascar would not be able to provide medical care for many of the injured because of its already compromised health care system.  Clean water and sanitation are current problems that Madagascar faces.  Around 11 million people in Madagascar don't have access to clean water and only 20% have direct access to a toilet.  This has resulted in many people contracting waterborne diseases like bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and typhoid fever.  An earthquake would only exacerbate these problems, especially in urban areas where the population is denser.  How would a health care system already overwhelmed by injuries caused by a major earthquake be able to care for people developing various diseases like cholera?


     In 1960, Madagascar gained its independence from France.  The vast majority of government buildings in the capital and regional urban centers were built during colonial times.  I doubt that any of these government buildings, or even hospitals and schools, have been retrofitted for earthquakes since Madagascar does not have a history of major earthquakes and the cost would just be too much.  If a major earthquake occurred, many of these buildings would be vulnerable to damage or be completely destroyed.  This would compromise the government's ability to function which would especially be needed during a time of crisis.  In many of the rural area, homes are built with mud, bricks or bamboo-like material.  If a major earthquake occurred, most of these structures would be destroyed leaving much of the population without shelter.  Even for the very small percentage of wealthier individuals who can afford to build their homes with corrugated metal or cement,  major damage if not complete destruction is very likely during a major earthquake.  Deforestation is a big problem in Madagascar not only threatening wildlife but also creating potential hazards.  Many hillsides are especially vulnerable to landslides, especially when there is a lot of shaking going on during an earthquake.  I could go on and on but I think I will stop here.  The one positive note is that Madagascar does not have a history of major earthquakes and hopefully it will stay that way.


REFERENCES


Madagascar - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org
Madagascar Plates - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org
Poverty in Madagascar - the Borgen Project, www.borgenproject.org
Madagascar - the Untold Crisis, www.unric.org
Water Aid Madagascar, www.wateraid.org
BNGRC, www.bngrc.org






 

MADAGASCAR AND TECTONIC PLATES

Madagascar is an island country located off the coast of southeast Africa in the Indian Ocean.  Madagascar is also located in the southwest area of the African Plate.  The Antarctic Plate is south of Madagascar and the Australian Plate is to the east.  The Indian and Arabian Plates are located in the north.  All of these plates have boundaries that are divergent.  Divergent boundaries are the result of plates that move away from each other producing new lithosphere which is the outer layer of earth.  This process is called seafloor spreading and occurs at mid-ocean ridges.  The mid-ocean ridges are the result of hot mantle that rises up when the plates move away from each other.  The majority of earthquakes and volcanoes occur along these plates.  Madagascar is around 750 mile from the Antarctic Plate boundary and 1100 from the Australian Plate boundary.  The Arabian and Indian boundaries are even further.  The distance is my own estimation using the map in the textbook and may not be completely accurate but the bottom line is Madagascar is not close to any of these four plates.






Madagascar does not have any active volcanoes presently or in recent times.  There are two active volcanoes close to Madagascar.  To the east of Madagascar is Reunion Island where one of the most active volcanoes in the world, Piton De La Fournaise, just recently erupted on Aug. 25, 2015.  To the north-west of Madagascar are the Comoros Islands where the volcano Karthala erupted April 2005 and in May of 2006.  The Ankaratra Plateau in the center of Madagascar experienced a 5.2 magnitude quake in 1985 and a 5.5 magnitude quake in 1991.  More recently a 5.3 magnitude quake struck Anakao in the south-east part of the island on Jan 13, 2013.






REFERENCES






Kellor, Edward A., Devecchio, Duane E., (2015) Natural Hazards, Earth's processes as Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes (4TH ED).






Piton De La Fournaise, en.Wikipedia.org.




Mount Karthala, en.Wikpedia.org




Madagascar - Earthquakes - Earthquakes Today, www.emsc-csem.org/Earthquake.php?id=302161


Madagascar Plates, en.Wikipedia.org

A hazard is a natural event that could potentially hurt or kill people and damage property.  A disaster is a hazardous event that takes place within a limited time span and a defined area.  For a disaster to occur 10 or more people are killed, 100 or more people are affected, a state of  emergency is declared and international assistance is requested.  A catastrophe is a huge disaster that costs a huge amount of money and takes years for recovery to take place.  Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans is an example of a catastrophe.